Souman Rudra

• Siddanth, S.G.; Tareq, Foysal Kabir & Rudra, Souman (2026). Engineering fast-charging anodes for solid-state sodium batteries: Materials progress, interfacial kinetics, and emerging design strategies. Journal of Energy Storage. ISSN 2352-152X. 180(B). doi: 10.1016/j.est.2026.124310. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  The growing demand for safe, sustainable, and high-power energy storage systems has accelerated the development of sodium-based batteries as promising alternatives to conventional lithium-ion technologies. In particular, solid-state sodium batteries (Na SSBs) offer improved safety, wider electrochemical stability, and the potential for fast-charging operation. However, the anode often becomes the key kinetic and stability bottleneck due to sluggish Na+ diffusion, interfacial polarization, and chemo-mechanical degradation. This review presents a comprehensive overview of recent advances in anode materials for fast-charging solid-state sodium batteries, emphasizing the fundamental mechanisms governing Na+ transport, interfacial electrochemistry, and mechanical stability. The article first discusses the fundamental processes controlling charge–discharge behavior in Na SSBs. Subsequently, major classes of anode materials are systematically reviewed, including metallic sodium, alloy-type anodes (Si, Ge, Sn, Sb, Bi), carbon-based frameworks, composite architectures, and emerging high-entropy or hybrid materials. Particular attention is given to interface engineering strategies, microstructural optimization, and electrolyte compatibility that enable improved fast-charging performance and enhanced cycling stability. Finally, current challenges and future research directions are discussed, highlighting the need for integrated materials design, advanced characterization, and computational screening to accelerate the development of high-performance anodes. This review provides a mechanistic and design-oriented roadmap for engineering next-generation fast-charging solid-state sodium batteries.

• Das, Opy; Zafar, Muhammad Hamza; Rudra, Souman & Sanfilippo, Filippo (2026). Adaptive battery SOC estimation: Temporal attention-enhanced BiLSTM and quantized model comparison for scalable edge solutions. Energy Reports. 16. doi: 10.1016/j.egyr.2026.109544. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Lithium-ion batteries are the dominant energy storage technology in modern energy systems, making the accurate state-of-charge (SOC) estimation essential for effective battery management. Reliable SOC estimation helps determine remaining battery capacity, improves operational safety, and supports real-time energy control. However, SOC estimation is challenging due to the nonlinear electrochemical behavior of lithium-ion batteries and performance degradation caused by aging and temperature variations. This study proposes a Bidirectional Long Short-Term Memory network with a Temporal Attention Mechanism (BiLSTM-TAM) to enhance SOC estimation accuracy across a wide temperature range from −20 °C to 40 °C. The model is evaluated under several driving conditions, including the Urban Dynamometer Driving Schedule (UDDS), the US06 aggressive driving cycle, a mixed driving cycle that combines multiple standard cycles, and the Hybrid Pulse Power Characterization (HPPC) test commonly used for battery modeling. Model performance is assessed using root-mean-square error (RMSE), mean absolute error (MAE), and the coefficient of determination (R ). Results demonstrate that the proposed BiLSTM-TAM model improves SOC estimation accuracy and robustness. To enable practical deployment, post-training quantization (PTQ) is applied to reduce model size and computational requirements while maintaining predictive performance, making it suitable for edge-based electric vehicle applications.

• Nasir, Rakib Bin & Rudra, Souman (2026). Chemical Looping and Chemical Looping Gasification for Hydrogen: Technologies, Scale-Up Status, and Data-Driven Process Optimization. Applications in Energy and Combustion Science. 26. doi: 10.1016/j.jaecs.2026.100495. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Hydrogen is widely recognized as a key energy carrier for achieving deep decarbonization across power generation, industry, and transportation sectors. However, current hydrogen production remains dominated by fossil-fuel-based processes, particularly steam methane reforming, which are associated with significant carbon emissions. In this context, chemical looping (CL) and chemical looping gasification (CLG) have emerged as promising thermochemical pathways capable of producing hydrogen and syngas with inherent CO₂ separation and high energy efficiency. This review provides a comprehensive and structured assessment of chemical looping–based hydrogen technologies, with a primary focus on CL and CLG systems, spanning reaction mechanisms, oxygen carrier materials, reactor configurations, scales of implementation, and process integration strategies. Special attention is given to biomass- and waste-based CLG routes, which offer the potential for carbon-neutral or carbon-negative hydrogen production. Decoupled and dual-loop gasification architectures are also examined as advanced configurations that enhance tar reduction, hydrogen selectivity, and operational flexibility. In addition, this work presents a comparative evaluation of major hydrogen production pathways, including ATR, conventional gasification, and looping-based systems, thereby positioning chemical looping within the broader landscape of hydrogen technology. . Unlike previous reviews, this work integrates reactor-scale developments with machine-learning-assisted optimization, techno-economic indicators, and scale-up readiness to provide a unified roadmap for chemical looping hydrogen systems. Key technical challenges related to oxygen carrier durability, reactor hydrodynamics, fuel variability, and economic viability are identified, along with future research directions. Overall, this review establishes chemical looping as a versatile and forward-looking platform for sustainable hydrogen production.

• Saral, Janakan S.; Rudra, Souman & Ranganathan, Panneerselvam (2026). Engineering challenges of continuous -flow hydrothermal liquefaction reactors for large-scale operations. Bioresource Technology Reports. 34. doi: 10.1016/j.biteb.2026.102636. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Hydrothermal liquefaction (HTL) is a prominent technology for converting various types of wet biomass feedstocks. Lignocellulose, microalgae, biowaste, and organic wastes are among them. Several aspects of HTL research have been conducted, resulting in an understanding of the process conditions, operating parameters, and biomass types that can improve the bio-crude yield. Further steps are needed to intensify the HTL process and enable large-scale implementation. In this context, the design and engineering challenges related to the HTL process are discussed. This review also highlights the state-of-the-art in the field of HTL. This study contributes to a deeper understanding of the various engineering challenges associated with the conventional HTL process. Furthermore, future directions for developing process intensification techniques must be addressed.

• Nasir, Rakib Bin; Kang, Tae Jin & Rudra, Souman (2026). Comparative assessment of chemical looping assisted biomass gasification for H2 production: A Thermochemical, Exergy, and Environmental Perspective. Case Studies in Chemical and Environmental Engineering (CSCEE). 13. doi: 10.1016/j.cscee.2026.101336. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  This study conducts a comparative simulation of chemical looping-assisted biomass gasification for hydrogen-rich syngas production using Aspen Plus and HYSYS. Three biomass types (wood, industrial bark of Picea abies, Norway spruce), gasifying agents (steam, air), and oxygen carriers (Fe2O3, FeTiO3) were assessed under twelve cases. Steam gasification significantly enhanced H2 yield and efficiency, while air gasification led to higher CO2 emissions. Energy, exergy, and environmental analyses highlight steam-based configurations as superior, confirming their promise for efficient, low-carbon hydrogen production.Bark-based configurations (Cases 5–8) show higher efficiencies (38.5–39.15 %) than wood-based systems (31.24–31.82 %) despite the lower heating value of bark, while steam-based chemical looping results in lower GWP, reaching minimum values of about 6130 kg CO2-eq/h. Techno-economic analysis indicates similar capital costs across all cases (∼11.27–11.32 million USD), with operating costs governing the hydrogen production cost, which varies between 0.90 and 1.08 USD/kg H2 and is lowest for Fe2O3-based systems. The novelty of this work lies in the systematic comparison of steam- and air-based chemical looping gasification for underexplored biomass feedstocks under identical operating conditions, supported by integrated energy, exergy, environmental, and techno-economic analyses, highlighting industrial bark as a promising feedstock for low-carbon hydrogen production.

• Roy, Shetal; Rudra, Souman; Indrachapa, Muhandiram Diani & Roshid, M. M. (2025). Numerical modelling and experimental validation of an orifice plate-based hydrodynamic cavitation process for improving the biomass pretreatment. Biotechnology Reports. 48. doi: 10.1016/j.btre.2025.e00925. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Hydrodynamic cavitation can be used to pretreat biomass by utilizing the energy released during the collapse of cavitation bubbles. Delignification as pretreatment enhances the biodegradation of lignocellulosic composition. The present study employed a CFD model and experimental validation of the numerical analysis of hydrodynamic cavitation (HC) in multi-hole orifice (MHO) designs under various operating conditions. The total 14 geometry of the orifice plate depends on the plate thickness, the number of holes, and the hole orientation used to analyze and optimize geometry for the biomass pretreatment process. Three phases are used in numerical analysis and experimentation to investigate the effect of particles on cavitation. The simulated results regarding velocity and pressure gradients, turbulence quantities, and vapor volume fractions are critically analyzed and discussed. The cavitation number changes to 0.22 in the experiment and 0.16 in the simulation due to the presence of biomass particles. Orifice plate thickness was found to significantly influence cavitation inception and evolution. 4 mm thickness and nine holes with specific orientations were found to be an optimized geometry with the lowest cavitation number, maximum pressure drop, and highest throat velocity. In the experimentation, 0.8 mm biomass particles were used in the mixture (2 % w/w) to determine the effect of biomass particles on the flow. This result helps identify the critical operating and design parameters and the impact on the cavitation of particles to achieve the desired cavitation phenomena.

• Indrachapa, Muhandiram Diani & Rudra, Souman (2025). TECHNO-ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF HYDRODYNAMIC CAVITATION-ASSISTED HYDROTHERMAL SEPARATION FOR WHEAT STRAW, CORNCOB AND SUGARCANE BAGASSE. European biomass conference and exhibition proceedings. p. 695–708. Full text in Research Archive
• Indrachapa, Muhandiram Diani & Rudra, Souman (2025). Coupled hydrodynamic cavitation–hydrothermal separation for biomass valorization: Simulation and experimental validation, and techno-economic assessment. Bioresource Technology Reports. 32. doi: 10.1016/j.biteb.2025.102450. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Hydrodynamic cavitation (HC) is an emerging effective pretreatment for biomass, enhancing the bio-product separation. This study simulated and analysed a coupled HC-hydrothermal separation (HTS) process in Aspen Plus and compared its efficiency and economic performance with an HTS-only setup. The HC pretreatment was conducted at 30 °C and 4 bar, and HTS was optimized at 130 °C, 15 bar, 6-min residence time, and a 10 % solid-to-liquid ratio. The integrated HC-HTS approach showed higher energy and exergy efficiencies, with a 38–57 % separation in lignin yield and a 63–88 % improvement in extractive removal over HTS alone. For oak-based sawdust, lignin and extractive removal after HC were estimated using thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), whereas other feedstocks utilised literature data. The techno-economic analysis projected an initial investment of approximately ∼€10 million, with HC-HTS generating positive annual cash flows (€1–€14 million), short payback periods of 0.7–1 year, and positive net present value (NPV) for favorable feedstocks. Sensitivity analysis showed that profitability is primarily influenced by product sales and prices. Overall, the HC-HTS process demonstrated superior technical and economic performance, offering an energy-efficient and economically viable route for biomass volarization through improved recovery and separation of lignocellulosic bioproducts.

• Hossain, Md Iftekher; Tareq, Foysal Kabir; Rudra, Souman & Carvalho, Patricia Almeida (2025). Cascaded photonic-electronic junction based plasmonic Mott–S scheme heterojunction photoelectrodes for water splitting and Zn-air battery technology. Journal of Power Sources. ISSN 0378-7753. 663. doi: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2025.238906. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Photo-assisted electrochemical systems present a sustainable pathway for water splitting and metal–air batteries, yet their performance is hindered by poor visible- light utilization, short carrier lifetimes, and sluggish redox kinetics. This work introduces a novel concept of a plasmon-enhanced Mott–S-scheme heterojunction AgCo-Fe2O3/g-C3N4, designed to overcome these limitations through a synergistic integration of photonic and plasmonic mechanisms. Nitrogen-deficient g-C3N4(g- CN) acts as a light-harvesting scaffold, while coupling with Fe2O3 forms an S-scheme junction enabling directional charge migration and selective carrier separation. AgCo nanoparticles introduce localized surface plasmon resonance, simultaneously serving as electron sinks to suppress recombination and as hot-carrier generators that accelerate catalytic turnover. Collectively, these structural and electronic synergies lead to significantly enhanced activity with reduced overpotentials of 78 mV for HER and 174 mV for OER at 10 mA/cm2, and a half-wave potential of 0.855 V vs. RHE for ORR in alkaline media; outperforming commercial Pt/C and IrO2 references. Durable operation is demonstrated in industrial-level water splitting (500 and 1000 mA/cm2 for 120 h) and extended Zn-air battery cycling (>100 h). Altogether, these findings highlight a mechanistically guided approach to plasmonic Mott–S-scheme heterojunction design, enabling light-assisted redox catalysis across multiple reaction pathways.

• Das, Arnab; Rudra, Souman; Hossain, Md Iftekher; Islam, Anfaj; Das, Opy & Christy, Alfred Antony [Show all 7 contributors for this article] (2025). Feasibility assessment of bioethanol-castor oil blends (CASAHOL) as sustainable marine engine fuel: balancing performance and emissions. Discover Applied Sciences. 7. doi: 10.1007/s42452-025-07757-w. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  This research investigates the viability of bioethanol (BE)-castor oil (CO) mixtures (CASAHOL) as an alternative fuel for marine engines, specifically targeting a dual-cylinder, four-stroke, naturally aspired (carburetor) engine. The study seeks to reduce the ecological consequences of fossil fuels by exploring renewable fuel alternatives. Four fuel blends with differing bioethanol and castor oil ratios were evaluated to determine their impact on engine performance, emissions, and fuel characteristics. Experimental results indicate that the 96%BE-4%CO blend attains the best thermal efficiency (24.27%) and produces a power output of 10.7 kW at max speed, establishing it as a formidable alternative to conventional fuels. Nonetheless, it generates comparatively elevated CO 2 (10.5% vol) and NOx emissions (1164 ppm at 2000 RPM), signifying a compromise between performance and pollution. Conversely, the 99%BE-1%CO mixture exhibits the lowest NOx emissions (165 ppm at 1000 RPM), although demonstrates inferior thermal efficiency and power production. The research underscores the necessity to refine fuel mixtures to achieve a balance among efficiency, performance, and ecological consequences. The 96% BE-4% CO blend presents a feasible solution, enhancing engine performance while maintaining acceptable emission standards. Additional research is advised to enhance these blends and investigate additions that may diminish the recorded emission levels.

• Bhuiyan, Md. Yasir; Rudra, Souman & Sayem, A.S.M. (2025). Pyro-gasification of Norwegian industrial solid waste (ISW) for hydrogen production and district heating application: A 4-E (energy, exergy, environment, and economic) analysis. Energy Conversion and Management: X. 27. doi: 10.1016/j.ecmx.2025.101068. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Electricity or heat production from waste incineration is often inefficient and costly, posing challenges for Norway’s ambition to achieve net-zero carbon emissions and a hydrogen-based economy by 2050. To address these challenges, this study aims to develop and evaluate two advanced thermochemical pathways- Sorption-Enhanced Chemical Looping Gasification (SE-CLG) and Pyrolysis-Integrated SE-CLG (Pyro-SE-CLG) for tri-generation (hydrogen, heat, and electricity) from Norwegian Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) and Industrial Solid Waste (ISW), while improving waste management efficiency and environmental performance. Experimental characterization of typical Norwegian ISW (HHV = 17.43 MJ/kg; LHV = 16.22 MJ/kg) revealed substantial energy potential. From literature, heavy metal presence in this type of waste and oxygen carrier (OC) deactivation with ash interaction prompted the development of the Pyro-SE-CLG model to enhance feedstock flexibility, facilitate heavy metal removal, and align waste utilization with national decarbonization goals. Both models were simulated using Aspen Plus and assessed via a 4-E (Energy, Exergy, Environment, and Economic) analysis. The SE-CLG maximized hydrogen yield at (170.6 kg H2/ton MSW; 142.8 kg H2/ton ISW), energy efficiency (up to 69.11 %), exergy efficiency (up to 57.29 %), and hot water recovery (up to 4,300 L/ton MSW) for district heating applications. Pyro-SE-CLG, while yielding 16–20 % less hydrogen and requiring five times more oxygen carrier (OC), enabled complete heavy metal removal using 200 kg of 1 M HCl per ton ISW and improved OC reusability, thereby reducing operational costs. Sensitivity analysis identified optimal hydrogen production at 800 °C (fuel reactor) and 200 °C (WGSR), with Ca2Fe2O5 ensuring stable performance across both configurations. Environmental analysis highlighted SE-CLG(MSW) as the most favorable option, achieving 25.55 % lower global warming potential (GWP) and 66.80 % lower acidification potential (AP) than ISW, while Pyro-SE-CLG reduced GWP during pyrolysis but exhibited higher post-PSA emissions due to lower CO2 capture efficiency. Economically, Pyro-SE-CLG(ISW) achieved the lowest hydrogen sale price (3.32 USD/kg), whereas SE-CLG(ISW) recorded the highest sustainability index (SI = 2.34). By optimizing hydrogen and heat recovery while addressing heavy metal contamination, this study supports Norway’s transition toward a circular, low-carbon energy system and demonstrates the potential of waste-to-hydrogen pathways to meet national 2050 sustainability targets.

• Islam, Anfaj; Rudra, Souman & Kolhe, Mohan Lal (2025). Optimizing the placement of distributed energy storage and improving distribution power system reliability via genetic algorithms and strategic load curtailment. Neural Computing & Applications. ISSN 0941-0643. 37, p. 17589–17608. doi: 10.1007/s00521-025-11037-4. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  As the integration of distributed generation (DG) and smart grid technologies grows, the need for enhanced reliability and efficiency in power systems becomes increasingly paramount. Energy storage systems (ESS) play a crucial role in achieving these objectives, particularly in enabling effective islanding operations during emergencies. This research leverages genetic algorithms to identify optimal combinations of ESS units and strategic load curtailment techniques to mitigate potential contingencies. The results demonstrate that integrating ESS significantly improves network reliability, optimizes infrastructure utilization, and is particularly beneficial in regions with high commercial and industrial load percentages. Moreover, the study underscores the critical role of load shedding in balancing reliability improvements and the sizing of DG units, offering valuable insights for future energy management approaches. By employing binary load curtailment strategies, the research determines the optimal location and size of ESS and DG units within the distribution network. The analysis reveals that ESS integration leads to a reduction in net annual costs while providing valuable insights into network reliability through the assessment of expected energy not supplied. Two case studies comparing various storage technologies with a base case without ESS highlight the cost-effectiveness of enhancing system reliability through distributed storage allocation. The study also emphasizes the significance of load shedding in balancing reliability enhancement and DG sizing, examining the effects of DG placement across different network buses. Finally, this article investigates the impact of diverse load mixes, indicating the need for larger ESS units as the proportion of commercial and industrial loads increases, accompanied by rising costs. Through these comprehensive analyses, the study offers valuable insights into optimizing the placement of distributed storage units and improving the reliability of distribution systems.

• Hossain, Md Iftekher; Tareq, Foysal Kabir & Rudra, Souman (2025). NiFe co-doped TiO<inf>2</inf> as a high-performance bifunctional photocatalyst for enhanced oxygen evolution and reduction reactions in efficient zinc-air battery systems. Electrochemistry communications. ISSN 1388-2481. 176. doi: 10.1016/j.elecom.2025.107942. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  This study underscores the significant influence of Ni and Fe transition metal doping, as well as NiFe co-doping, on enhancing the properties of TiO2 to address the critical challenges in developing high-performance photo-assisted Zn-air batteries, particularly the need for improved light absorption, charge carrier separation, and catalytic efficiency. The doping process notably enhances light absorption and charge carrier separation, while the reduction in TiO2 crystallite size increases the surface area and shortens charge carrier diffusion paths, thereby minimizing recombination rates and improving photocatalytic efficiency. Moreover, the higher redox potentials of Ni and Fe oxidation states relative to TiO2's conduction band enable them to function as efficient electron acceptors, stabilizing charge carriers and accelerating reduction reactions. Electrochemical analysis reveals that NiFe-doped TiO2 exhibits superior conductivity and reduced charge transfer resistance compared to its single-element-doped counterparts, facilitating faster reaction kinetics. For OER, the overpotential decreases from 307 mV to 221 mV, while for ORR, illumination improves the half-wave potential to 0.65 V and increases the diffusion-plateau current density from 3.96 mA/cm2 to 4.6 mA/cm2. Battery performance testing demonstrates that under light irradiation, the charging potential is reduced to 1.63–1.66 V, and the discharge voltage is stabilized at 1.56–1.60 V, resulting in a round-trip efficiency of 96.34 %, compared to 77.59 % under dark conditions. These performance metrics approach the theoretical redox potential of 1.64 V, outperforming the capabilities of the state-of-the-art catalysts for photo-assisted Zn-air systems. Overall, this work establishes NiFe-doped TiO2 as a highly effective bifunctional photocatalyst, highlighting its potential to optimize oxygen evolution reaction (OER) and oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) processes, thereby contributing to advancements in sustainable energy storage technologies.

• Hossain, Md Iftekher; Tareq, Foysal Kabir & Rudra, Souman (2025). Light-driven photocathodes in Li/Zn-O<inf>2</inf> (air) batteries : An analytical review, technological breakthroughs and future challenges. Energy Storage Materials. ISSN 2405-8297. 75. doi: 10.1016/j.ensm.2025.104025. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  The rapid advancement of renewable energy technologies has intensified the demand for high-performance energy storage systems. Metal-O2 (air) batteries, specifically Li-O2 (air) and Zn-O2 (air) variants, present exceptional theoretical energy densities, positioning them as promising candidates for next-generation storage solutions. However, significant challenges remain in optimizing the oxygen reduction and evolution reactions (ORR/OER), critical for achieving high efficiency and stability. Recent developments in light-assisted metal-O2 (air) battery designs leverage photonic energy to enhance oxygen reduction and evolution reactions, offering reduced charge voltages, improved round-trip efficiencies, and extended lifetimes. This review critically evaluates the breakthroughs and limitations in photo-assisted Li/Zn-O2 (air) battery technologies, with a focus on novel photocathode materials, including advanced semiconductors, heterojunction configurations, and nanostructured catalysts. We systematically highlight the key properties of these photocathode materials, evaluating their photon-utilization efficiency, charge separation capabilities, recombination rates, charging/discharging profiles, efficient decomposition of discharge products and stability under operational conditions. Emphasis is placed on advanced strategies to enhance light absorption, aiming to optimize photocatalytic efficiency, electronic properties, and catalytic stability, thereby overcoming current performance barriers. By providing a comprehensive analysis of the current landscape and emerging trends, this review aims to chart a path forward for the development of more robust, efficient, and sustainable light-assisted Li/Zn-O2 (air) batteries, highlighting the essential role of innovative photocathode materials in achieving next-generation energy storage solutions.

• Hossain, Md Iftekher; Tareq, Foysal Kabir & Rudra, Souman (2025). NiFe co-doped TiO2 as a high-performance bifunctional photocatalyst for enhanced oxygen evolution and reduction reactions in efficient zinc-air battery systems. Electrochemistry communications. ISSN 1388-2481. 176. doi: 10.1016/j.elecom.2025.107942. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  This study underscores the significant influence of Ni and Fe transition metal doping, as well as NiFe co-doping, on enhancing the properties of TiO2 to address the critical challenges in developing high-performance photoassisted Zn-air batteries, particularly the need for improved light absorption, charge carrier separation, and catalytic efficiency. The doping process notably enhances light absorption and charge carrier separation, while the reduction in TiO2 crystallite size increases the surface area and shortens charge carrier diffusion paths, thereby minimizing recombination rates and improving photocatalytic efficiency. Moreover, the higher redox potentials of Ni and Fe oxidation states relative to TiO2’s conduction band enable them to function as efficient electron acceptors, stabilizing charge carriers and accelerating reduction reactions. Electrochemical analysis reveals that NiFe-doped TiO2 exhibits superior conductivity and reduced charge transfer resistance compared to its single-element-doped counterparts, facilitating faster reaction kinetics. For OER, the overpotential decreases from 307 mV to 221 mV, while for ORR, illumination improves the half-wave potential to 0.65 V and increases the diffusion-plateau current density from 3.96 mA/cm2 to 4.6 mA/cm2. Battery performance testing demonstrates that under light irradiation, the charging potential is reduced to 1.63–1.66 V, and the discharge voltage is stabilized at 1.56–1.60 V, resulting in a round-trip efficiency of 96.34 %, compared to 77.59 % under dark conditions. These performance metrics approach the theoretical redox potential of 1.64 V, outperforming the capabilities of the state-of-the-art catalysts for photo-assisted Zn-air systems. Overall, this work establishes NiFedoped TiO2 as a highly effective bifunctional photocatalyst, highlighting its potential to optimize oxygen evolution reaction (OER) and oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) processes, thereby contributing to advancements in sustainable energy storage technologies.

• Ahmed, Md. Bayazid & Rudra, Souman (2025). Hydrodynamic Cavitation-Assisted Hydrothermal Separation: A Pathway for Valorizing Lignocellulosic Biomass into Biopolymers and Extractives. Processes. doi: 10.3390/pr13072041. Full text in Research Archive
• Prokhorskii, Gleb Vladimirovich; Preißinger, Markus; Rudra, Souman & Eder, Elias (2025). An interpretable and adaptable data-driven model for performance prediction in thermal plants. Energy Conversion and Management: X. 26. doi: 10.1016/j.ecmx.2025.100950. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  To safely operate complex industrial systems such as thermal power plants, establishing reliable monitoring tools is paramount for better understanding the underlying processes. Data-driven models are a useful aid for monitoring and control of thermal power plants, but they require an effective feature selection to allow for an accurate, computationally efficient, and interpretable model. In this study, we systematically compared three different modes of feature selection for predicting the live steam flow in a thermal plant: purely expert-based, purely data-driven, and a hybrid combining both. While a fully data-driven approach yields the highest accuracy, a hybrid approach, refined from more than 3,000 features, achieves nearly equivalent precision (NMAE = 1.14%) while using only 44 physical sensor signals, significantly improving the computational efficiency and enabling interpretability. The model is dynamically retrained using a sliding window approach to effectively handle load variations and plant shutdowns, which allows for the real-time tracking of deviations from the expected performance. We further validated our approach on a second thermal plant, achieving an NMAE of 2.49% despite substantial operational differences. By balancing predictive accuracy, interpretability, and transferability across plants, this work provides a practical framework for robust, data-driven monitoring and decision support in complex industrial power systems.

• Tareq, Foysal Kabir & Rudra, Souman (2024). Enhancing the performance of silicon-based anode materials for alkali metal (Li, Na, K) ion battery: A review on advanced strategies. Materials Today Communications. 39, p. 1–24. doi: 10.1016/j.mtcomm.2024.108653. Full text in Research Archive
• Tareq, Foysal Kabir; Hossain, Iftekhar & Rudra, Souman (2024). Phase transformation and electronic structure modulation of 1T-MoS<inf>2</inf> with electronegative non-metal doping as anode material for enhanced potassium-ion battery. Journal of Energy Chemistry. ISSN 2095-4956. 103, p. 735–748. doi: 10.1016/j.jechem.2024.12.024. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  The scarcity and high cost of lithium resources drive the search for sustainable alternatives, positioning potassium-ion batteries (KIBs) as promising energy storage solutions due to the natural abundance and advantageous electrochemical properties of the potassium. This study investigates the enhancement of KIB anodes through phase transformation and electronic structure engineering of monolayer 1T-MoS2, achieved via doping with highly electronegative non-metal elements: carbon (C), nitrogen (N), oxygen (O), and fluorine (F). Density functional theory (DFT) simulations reveal that electronegative atom doping enhances phase stability, structural robustness, and thermal resilience, which are key properties for high-performance KIB anodes. Among the doped configurations, F and N-doped 1T-MoS2 (MoS2-F and MoS2-N) exhibit superior electrochemical performance, showing optimal adsorption energies and significantly improved electronic conductivity, attributable to favorable charge redistribution and increased active potassium adsorption sites. Specifically, MoS2-F and MoS2-N achieve the highest specific capacities of 339.65 and 339.17 mAh/g, respectively, while maintaining stability within an ideal open circuit voltage range, outperforming undoped MoS2. This work underscores the potential of electronegative atom doping in 1T-MoS2 to enable sustainable, high-capacity energy storage solutions, offering key advancements in the electrochemical and structural properties of KIB anodes.

• Hossain, Iftekhar; Tareq, Foysal Kabir & Rudra, Souman (2024). Substitutional electronegative element defects-induced modification of silicene's electronic structures as high-performance cathode material for water splitting. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy. ISSN 0360-3199. 101, p. 148–160. doi: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2024.12.390. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  The growing global energy demands, and environmental concerns underscore the need for innovative green and sustainable energy conversion technologies. Water splitting, an advanced method for green hydrogen production, offers exceptional energy density with zero carbon emissions, and can significantly alleviate environmental pollution and crisis. This study explores the modification of silicene's electronic structure through substitutional defects involving electronegative elements (P, Se, S, and C) to enhance its efficacy as a cathode material for the hydrogen evolution reaction (HER). Density functional theory (DFT) simulations reveal that defect-induced modifications significantly alter the electronic structure of silicene, optimizing active sites. Among the various configurations, SiC3-silicene emerges as a superior catalyst, exhibiting an unprecedented Gibbs free energy (ΔGH) of 0.008 eV for HER, surpassing the performance of traditional platinum-based catalysts. Furthermore, SiC3-silicene demonstrates a minimal overpotential of 172 mV at current densities of 500 mA/cm2, affirming its potential for industrial-scale applications. A comprehensive charge transfer analysis shows that the incorporation of electronegative dopants induces substantial charge redistribution, markedly increasing charge concentration at the active sites. This enhanced charge transfer plays a pivotal role in stabilizing hydrogen adsorption, thereby improving catalytic efficiency. Additionally, the structural stability of doped silicene confirms that the SiC3-silicene configuration maintains robust structural integrity, which is essential for practical deployment. This simulation-based study introduces SiC3-silicene as a novel, high-performance cathode material for sustainable hydrogen production, paving the way for its practical implementation in sustainable energy systems.

• Das, Opy; Zafar, Muhammad Hamza; Sanfilippo, Filippo; Rudra, Souman & Kolhe, Mohan Lal (2024). Advancements in digital twin technology and machine learning for energy systems: A comprehensive review of applications in smart grids, renewable energy, and electric vehicle optimisation. Energy Conversion and Management: X. 24. doi: 10.1016/j.ecmx.2024.100715. Full text in Research Archive
• Prokhorskii, Gleb Vladimirovich; Rudra, Souman; Preißinger, Markus & Eder, Elias (2024). A data-driven regression model for predicting thermal plant performance under load fluctuations. Carbon Neutrality. ISSN 2788-8614. 3(1), p. 1–15. doi: 10.1007/s43979-024-00108-5. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  The global energy demand is still primarily reliant on fossil-fueled thermal power plants. With the growing share of renewables, these plants must frequently adjust their loads. Maintaining, or ideally increasing operational efficiency under these conditions is crucial. Increasing the efficiency of such systems directly reduces associated greenhouse gas emissions, but it requires sophisticated models and monitoring systems. Data-driven models have proven their value here, as they can be used for monitoring, operational state estimation, and prediction. However, they are also sensitive to (1) the training approach, (2) the selected feature set, (3) and the algorithm used. Using operational data, we comprehensively investigate these model parameters for performance prediction in a thermal plant for process steam generation. Specifically, four regression algorithms are evaluated for the prediction of the highly fluctuating live steam flow with two training approaches and three feature subsets of the raw dataset. Furthermore, manual and automatic clustering methods are used to identify different states of operation regarding the fuel amounts used in the combustion chamber. Our results show that the live steam flow is predicted with excellent accuracy for a testing period of one month (R2=0.994 and NMAE=0.55%) when using a dynamic training approach and a comprehensive feature set comprised of 48 features representing the combustion process. It is also seen that the statically trained model predicts various load changes with strong accuracy and that the accuracy of the dynamically trained model can be approached by incorporating the cluster information into the static model. These models reflect the plant’s physical intricacies under varying loads, where deviations from the predicted live steam flow indicate unwanted long-term drifts. They can be directly implemented to help operators detect inefficiencies and optimize plant performance.

• Rudra, Souman & Akhtar, Taimur (2023). Algal Biomass Conversion: Hydrothermal Liquefaction for Advanced Bio-Fuel Production. In al, . et (Eds.), Reference Module in Earth Systems and Environmental Sciences 2023. Elsevier. ISSN 9780124095489. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-323-93940-9.00233-4. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  The rapid increase in energy demand and environmental challenges enable us to find substitutes to meet the increasing energy demand and satisfy the environmental standards. In this context, eco-friendly algae biomass and advanced conversion technology such as hydrothermal liquefaction (HTL) appear to be exciting solutions. Algae biomass has a carbon-neutral nature, and it has high photosynthetic efficiency, while HTL is a thermochemical technique capable of converting whole algae biomass into biofuel and other by-products. This chapter briefly enlightens the concepts of HTL technology, the recent progress, and the impact of process operating conditions on biofuel. Additionally, it briefly outlines the challenges associated with converting algae biomass into biofuel and provides a succinct overview of the future outlook in this field.

• Prokhorskii, Gleb Vladimirovich; Eder, Elias; Rudra, Souman & Preißinger, Markus (2023). A benchmark study of supervised learning methods for predicting the live steam production of thermal power plants. In Riehl, Roger R. (Eds.), 10th Heat-Powered Cycles Conference. The University of Edinburgh. ISSN 9781912669639. p. 313–323. Full text in Research Archive
• Nielsen, Henrik Kofoed; Vehus, Tore; Rudra, Souman & Kristiansen, Nils Randulf (2022). Chapter 9 - Biomass production, storage, and pretreatment for the production of solid biofuels. In Castro, Fernando Gomez & Gutierrez-Antonio, Claudia (Ed.), Biofuels and Biorefining Volume 1: Current Technologies for Biomass Conversion. Elsevier. ISSN 9780128241165. p. 339–380. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-12-824116-5.00003-9. Full text in Research Archive
• Rudra, Souman & Jayathilake, Madhawa (2021). Hydrothermal Liquefaction of Biomass for Biofuel Production. In NN, NN (Eds.), Earth Systems and Environmental Sciences. Elsevier. ISSN 9780124095489. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-12-819727-1.00043-1. Full text in Research Archive
• Jayathilake, Madhawa; Rudra, Souman & Christy, Alfred Antony (2021). Effect of co-liquefaction of lignin and laminaria saccharina on optimization of bio-oil yield. Energy Conversion and Management: X. doi: 10.1016/j.ecmx.2021.100151. Full text in Research Archive
• Jayathilake, Madhawa; Rudra, Souman & Rosendahl, Lasse A. (2021). Numerical modeling and validation of hydrothermal liquefaction of a lignin particle for biocrude production. Fuel. ISSN 0016-2361. 305. doi: 10.1016/j.fuel.2021.121498. Full text in Research Archive
• Jayathilake, Madhawa; Rudra, Souman; Akhtar, Naureen & Christy, Alfred Antony (2021). Characterization and Evaluation of Hydrothermal Liquefaction Char from Alkali Lignin in Subcritical Temperatures. Materials. 14(11). doi: 10.3390/ma14113024. Full text in Research Archive
• Jayathilake, Madhawa; Rudra, Souman & Rosendahl, Lasse A. (2020). Hydrothermal liquefaction of wood using a modified multistage shrinking-core model. Fuel. ISSN 0016-2361. 280. doi: 10.1016/j.fuel.2020.118616. Full text in Research Archive
• Rudra, Souman & Tesfagaber, Yohannes Kifle (2019). Future district heating plant integrated with municipal solid waste (MSW) gasification for hydrogen production. Energy. ISSN 0360-5442. 180, p. 881–892. doi: 10.1016/j.energy.2019.05.125. Full text in Research Archive
• Jayathilake, Rukshan & Rudra, Souman (2017). Numerical and Experimental Investigation of Equivalence Ratio (ER) and Feedstock Particle Size on Birchwood Gasification. Energies. doi: 10.3390/en10081232. Full text in Research Archive
• Rudra, Souman & Rosendahl, Lasse (2016). Techno-economic analysis of a local district heating plant under fuel flexibility and performance. Energy Efficiency. ISSN 1570-646X. 10(3), p. 1–12. doi: 10.1007/s12053-016-9475-2. Full text in Research Archive
• Rudra, Souman; Rosendahl, Lasse & Blarke, Morten B. (2015). Process analysis of a biomass-based quad-generation plant for combined power, heat, cooling, and synthetic natural gas production. Energy Conversion and Management. ISSN 0196-8904. 106, p. 1276–1285. doi: 10.1016/j.enconman.2015.10.072. Full text in Research Archive
• Rudra, Souman; Rosendahl, Lasse & Kumar, Amit (2014). Development of net energy ratio and emission factor for quad-generation pathways. Energy Systems, Springer Verlag. ISSN 1868-3967. 5(4), p. 719–735. doi: 10.1007/s12667-014-0126-4. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  The conversion of biomass to four different outputs via gasification is a renewable technology that could reduce the use of fossil fuels and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. This study investigates the energy aspects for a new concept of biomass based quad-generation plant producing power, heat, methanol and methane. Circulating fluidized bed gasifier and the gas technology institute (GTI) gasifier technologies are used for this quad-generation process. Two different biomass feedstocks are considered in this study. The net energy ratio for six different pathways having the range of between 1.3 and 7.2. The lowest limit corresponds to the wood chips-based power, heat, methanol and methane production pathway using GTI technology. Since more efficient alternatives exist for the generation of heat and electricity from biomass, it is argued that syngas is best used for methanol production. The aim of this study was to evaluate the energy performance, reduce GHG and acid rain precursor emission, and use of biomass for different outputs based on demand. Finally, a sensitivity analysis and a comparative study ar conducted for expected technological improvements and factors that could increase the energy performance.

• Rudra, Souman; Rosendahl, Lasse & Hoffmann, Jessica (2013). Conceptual design of an integrated hydrothermal liquefaction and biogas plant for sustainable bioenergy production. Bioresource Technology. ISSN 0960-8524. doi: 10.1016/j.biortech.2012.11.051. Full text in Research Archive

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• Rudra, Souman (2026). নিশীথ সূর্যের দেশে. Mowla Brothers . ISBN 9789846930146. 92 p. Full text in Research Archive

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• Rudra, Souman (2026). From Biomass to Hydrogen: Thermochemical Pathways and Future Innovations. doi: https:/www.hochschule-stralsund.de/spring-school. Full text in Research Archive
• Rudra, Souman (2025). Hybrid Hydrodynamic Cavitation (HC)–Hydrothermal Separation (HTS) Processing: A Next-Generation Pathway for Biomass Valorization and Bio-Product Recovery. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Hydrodynamic cavitation (HC) has emerged as a highly efficient pretreatment method for biomass, enabling enhanced separation and recovery of valuable bio-products. In this keynote, we present a comprehensive techno-environmental evaluation of a novel integrated Hydrodynamic Cavitation–Hydrothermal Separation (HC-HTS) process for lignocellulosic biomass valorization. The HC pretreatment was performed at 30 °C and 4 bar, while HTS operation was optimized at 130 °C, 15 bar, 6-minute residence time, and 10% solid loading. The combined HC-HTS configuration demonstrated superior performance, delivering 38–57% higher lignin yield and 63–85% greater extractive removal relative to HTS alone. For oak-based sawdust, bio-product recovery was estimated using thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). Complementary computational fluid dynamics (CFD) modelling provided insight into cavitation behavior and energy dissipation, while Hydrothermal Liquefaction (HTL) experiments on lignin conversion validated the simulation outcomes. Techno-economic results showed that both plant configurations require ~€10 million initial investment. However, only the HC-HTS system generated positive annual net cash flows (€1–€14 million), while HTS-only pathways remained unprofitable. Sensitivity analysis confirmed that profitability is most influenced by bio-product market prices. Overall, the HC-HTS hybrid platform delivers enhanced technical performance, improved resource recovery, and attractive commercial viability—establishing a promising pathway for next-generation biomass valorization and circular bioeconomy development.

• Rudra, Souman (2025). Educate. Collaborate. Innovate: CARE Project as an Example for Global Knowledge Partnerships. Full text in Research Archive
• Rudra, Souman (2025). CARE: Connecting Norway-Bangladesh Through Renewable Energy Education and Research. Full text in Research Archive
• Rudra, Souman (2025). Pitch Presentation on professor Souman Rudra. Full text in Research Archive
• Rudra, Souman (2025). Integrating Hydrodynamic Cavitation and Hydrothermal Separation for Extractables and Bio-Polymers. Full text in Research Archive
• Das, Opy; Sui, Xin; Sanfilippo, Filippo & Rudra, Souman (2025). Battery Time-Series Data Augmentation Using a GAF-Based Generative Framework. Full text in Research Archive
• Rudra, Souman & Akhtar, Taimur (2023). Experimental study on hydrothermal co-liquefaction of Laminaria digitata and Chlorella vulgaris to investigate the impact of the bio-oil yield. Full text in Research Archive
• Rudra, Souman (2022). Hydrothermal processing of biomass for biofuels and biochemicals. Full text in Research Archive
• Rudra, Souman (2022). The role of bioenergy in the EU renewable energy system. Illuminem. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  The rapid increase of environmental pollution, global warming, the depletion of the available fossil fuels, and the increasing energy demand have urged the modern world to move on to sustainable and renewable energy sources. The role of renewable energy, especially solar and wind, is increasing more rapidly. However, bioenergy contributes to providing the bulk of heat and transportation fuels. In addition, the recent Russian invasion of Ukraine shows why the EU needs to be independent in the energy sector. The European Commission has already proposed an outline of a plan to make Europe independent from Russian fossil fuels well before 2030[1]. Therefore, the role of bioenergy in the EU energy system is significant in the future.

• Rudra, Souman (2022). International cooperation will provide better expertise on renewable energy. [Internet]. Norway. Full text in Research Archive
• Rudra, Souman (2021). Waste to Energy possible technologies for Bangladesh. Full text in Research Archive
• Rudra, Souman (2021). Carbondioxide(CO2) based cooling system at CERN. Full text in Research Archive
• Jayathilake, Rukshan & Rudra, Souman (2020). Char Phase Behavior of Hydrothermal Conversion of Alkali Lignin in Subcritical Temperatures. Full text in Research Archive
• Jayathilake, Madhawa & Rudra, Souman (2019). Hydrothermal Liquefaction modeling of lignin Using A Modified Multistage Shrinking-Core Model. Full text in Research Archive
• Rudra, Souman (2019). Hydrothermal Liquefaction for bio-fuel and Chemicals: An overview. Full text in Research Archive
• Rudra, Souman (2018). Analysis of hydrogen production from waste-to-energy plant by gasification. Full text in Research Archive
• Rudra, Souman (2018). HTL-drivstoff - erfaring og planer ved Universitetet i Agder. Full text in Research Archive
• Rudra, Souman (2018). Process Symbiosis local process industries CO2 emission capture and utilization integrated with bio-gas production. Full text in Research Archive
• Rudra, Souman & Tesfagaber, Yohannes Kifle (2018). Future district heating plant integrated with sustainable hydrogen production. Full text in Research Archive
• Rudra, Souman & Haugstad, Bjørn (2017). Process Analysis of Hydrothermal Liquefaction of Algae. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Hydrothermal liquefaction is a promising process for future biofuel production. Complex reactions occurring during the process are not fully discovered, thus accurate simulations are not yet attainable. Several batch experiments have been seen but only a few continuous flow systems. Three different microalgae biomass were analyzed using TGA (Thermogravity analysis), Proximate analysis and Ultimate analysis. Properties from these algae analyses were used in the Aspen Plus simulation model. The Aspen Plus simulation tool was used to model the HTL of three species of algae. The energy consumption of the main components was considered, and a process optimization was done by implementing a heat exchanger. Without a heat exchanger, a large amount of waste heat was not utilized in the system and it showed poor efficiency for the whole process. Still, there was potential for heat integration and optimization of the system. Water recycling, district heating or other options could be considered. The efficiency of the system was improved when products in all the streams are utilized. S. platensis and P. tricornutum algae obtained 83 % energy efficiency for the HTL process. Annual production of biocude was 180,000 liters from S. platensis, 211,000 from C. vulgaris and 124,000 from P tricornutum. The outcome of the simulation is mainly determined by the composition of components in the product stream.

• Rudra, Souman & Jayathilake, Rukshan (2017). Effects of variable feedstock particle size on Birchwood gasification: A CFD approach. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Gasification is a complex process and determining gasification characteristics experimentally is a time consuming process. Using CFD models to predict and examine about gasification characteristics, in various scenario can be time saving and safe. This paper primarily discusses the results of a CFD model, which simulates gasification characteristics of Birchwood. During the work, variation of producer gas yield, syngas composition and cold gas efficiency of the syngas were investigated with a variable biomass particle size. A 3D CFD model of a fixed bed downdraft gasifier has been developed. Euler –Euler approach has been used to model the gas phase reactions while, Lagrangian approach has been used to model the solid- gas reactions. For the simulations, biomass (Birchwood) particles with two different diameter sizes were used. They were 11.5mm and 9.18 mm. In this work, gasification parameters were examined within the equivalence ratio (ER) range from 0.2 to 0.5. The simulated results were validated using the actual fixed bed downdraft gasifier available at UIA, Norway. CO, CO2, CH4 and H2 mass fractions of the syngas were measured along with the calculated values of syngas yield and cold gas efficiency (CGE). With the 9.18mm diameter birchwood particle, CGE has shown an average maximum value of 59.4 % at the ER value of 0.5, which is a 4% improvement over the 11.5mm diameter biomass particle. In addition, Syngas yield has also shown an average maximum value of 2.8 Nm3/h with the 9.18 mm wood particle, which is an improvement of 0.1 Nm3/h over the 11.5 mm biomass particle

• Rudra, Souman (2016). Waste to Energy- Perspective technologies for Bangladesh. Full text in Research Archive
• Rudra, Souman & Jayathilake, Rukshan (2016). A Computational Fluid Dynamics Analysis for the effects of variable Equivalence Ratio (ER) On Birchwood Gasification. Full text in Research Archive
• Akhtar, Taimur & Rudra, Souman (2015). Conceptual model in aspen plus for recovery of biocrude from hydrothermal algal biomass liquefaction. Full text in Research Archive
• Rudra, Souman (2014). Biomass Gasification for quad-generation system. Full text in Research Archive
• Rudra, Souman (2014). Process analysis of biomass based quad-generation plant. Full text in Research Archive
• Rudra, Souman & Rosendahl, Lasse (2012). Development of net energy ratio for quadgeneration pathways. Full text in Research Archive
• Rudra, Souman & Rosendahl, Lasse (2011). Optimization of a Local District Heating Plant Under Fuel Flexibility and Performance. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Brovst is a small district in Denmark. Based on the case of Brovst, this paper analyses the role of district heating in future Renewable Energy Systems. The present use of fossil fuels in the Brovst DHP (district heating plant) represents an increasing environmental and climate-related load. So, an investigation has been made to reduce the use of fossil fuels for district heating system and make use of the local renewable resources (Biogas, Solar and Geothermal) for district heating purpose. In this article, the techno-economic assessment is achieved through the development of a suite of models that are combined to give cost and performance data for this district heating system. Different local fuels have been analyzed for different perspectives to find the way to optimize the whole integrated system in accordance with fuel availability and cost. This paper represents the energy system analysis mode energyPRO which has been used to analyses the integration of large scale energy system into the domestic district heating system. A model of the current work on the basis of information from the plant (using fossil fuel) is established and named as a reference model. Then different solutions are calculated for various local fuels in energyPRO. A comparison has been made between the reference model and the basis for individual solutions. The greatest reduction in heat price is obtained by replacing one engine with a new biogas where heat production is divided by 66% of biogas, 13% natural gas engines and 21% natural gas boilers.

• Rudra, Souman; Rosendahl, Lasse & Kim, Hyung Taek (2010). A performance analysis of integrated solid oxide fuel cell and heat recovery steam generator for IGFC system. Frontiers in Energy. ISSN 2095-1701. doi: 10.1007/s11708-010-0122-x. Full text in Research Archive
• Jayathilake, Madhawa & Rudra, Souman (2021). Numerical modelling and validation of Hydrothermal liquefaction of Lignin. Shrinking core approach on particle decomposition and a comparative analysis of biocrude and HTL char. Universitetet i Agder. ISSN 9788284270715. Full text in Research Archive

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