Ådne Ausland

• Ausland, Ådne; Solstad, Bård Erlend; Knight, Camilla J.; Ivarsson, Andreas & Torstveit, Monica Klungland (2026). Navigating uncharted territory: a biopsychosocial perspective on coaching female athletes. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology. ISSN 1612-197X. doi: 10.1080/1612197x.2026.2701821. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  As female athlete participation continues to grow globally, there is a pressing need to develop coaching strategies that address their specific biopsychosocial needs. This study explores the uncharted territory of coaching female athletes within the Norwegian sports context, drawing on the subjective experiences of coaches, retired elite female athletes, and sports federation representatives. Using a qualitative study design, 32 semi-structured interviews were conducted across eight major sports in Norway. Participants included elite coaches (n = 8), recreational coaches (n = 8), retired elite female athletes (n = 8), and sports federation representatives (n = 8). Reflexive thematic analysis generated three primary themes: (1) communication and relationships as sexed foundations of effective coaching, (2) female-specific coaching knowledge and its psychosocial consequences, and (3) systemic conditions of coach education and delivery. Coaches reported challenges in addressing menstrual health, body image, and injury prevention, often due to limited access to practical resources and evidence-based knowledge. Findings also revealed structural barriers within current coach education programmes, including minimal biopsychosocial content and limited organisational support. This study highlights the urgent need for practical, inclusive education that integrates biopsychosocial knowledge to foster more equitable coaching environments, enhancing the long-term well-being, development, and performance of female athletes.

• Ausland, Ådne; Solstad, Bård Erlend & Torstveit, Monica Klungland (2026). Guided by trust and pushed past the limit: Retired elite female athletes’ narrative accounts of coaching, voices and menstrual health. International journal of sports science & coaching. ISSN 1747-9541. doi: 10.1177/17479541261440230. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Coach-athlete relationships are central to athlete development, health, and performance in elite sport. This study explored how retired elite female athletes retrospectively narrate their coaching experiences, with attention to how these relationships intersected with female-specific health concerns, training autonomy, and psychological support. A biopsychosocial perspective informed the interview design, focusing on how physical, psychological, and social factors coalesce to shape athletes’ experiences. Using a qualitative interview design and thematic narrative analysis, interviews were conducted with eight retired Norwegian elite female athletes. Participants reflected on relational dynamics across their careers, including trust, silence, vulnerability, and how topics such as menstrual health and low-energy availability were addressed or ignored, in their coaching environments. Two narrative trajectories were constructed. The first described relationships characterised by long-term trust, emotional availability, and openness to female-specific concerns, which supported athletes’ willingness to share bodily cues and collaborate on adjustments. The second trajectory depicted more distant and rigid environments, where health-related concerns were overlooked, and athletes gradually learned to withhold concerns, often normalising silence as part of the high-performance culture. Across both trajectories, the narratives highlighted how coaching relationships shape athletes’ sense of safety, autonomy, and capacity to voice physical and psychological needs. The findings suggest that a female-informed relational approach (brief state checks, explicit validation, and proportionate adjustments) may help foster more open dialogue about body-related cues. These insights may support the continued development of coach education programmes that integrate biopsychosocial awareness to create more responsive and sustainable coaching environments for elite female athletes.

• Ausland, Ådne; Solstad, Bård Erlend; Ivarsson, Andreas; Melin, Anna; Laxdal, Aron Gauti & Augustsson, Sofia Ryman [Show all 11 contributors for this article] (2026). Perceived importance and self-evaluations of female-specific knowledge: current insights into sports coaching of female athletes. Sports Coaching Review. ISSN 2164-0629. p. 1–17. doi: 10.1080/21640629.2026.2659981. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Female athletes encounter biological challenges, such as puberty and hormonal health, embedded within psychosocial coaching environments. Despite their relevance, these topics remain insufficiently integrated into coach education programmes. This study surveyed 779 coaches in Norway and Sweden to examine perceived knowledge versus the importance of female-specific topics through a biopsychosocial perspective. Results revealed a consistent discrepancy: coaches rated these topics as highly important but reported limited knowledge. Latent profile analysis identified three distinct profiles: “High-Performance but Resource-Limited”, “Aware but Underprepared”, and “Confident but Unaware,” with no significant differences based on coach sex or education. Across profiles, coaches reported limited resource access and a strong need for education regarding how these factors impact communication, training, and well-being. These findings indicate persistent gaps in coach preparedness, highlighting the need for context-sensitive education. Integrating biologically grounded content within a biopsychosocial perspective may strengthen coaching practice and thus enhance female athletes´ long-term development.

• Ausland, Ådne; Kelemen, Bence & Seiler, Stephen (2026). An exploratory study of maximal heart rate determination in endurance athletes: laboratory testing vs. field based. Frontiers in Sports and Active Living. 8. doi: 10.3389/fspor.2026.1806303. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Background: Accurate assessment of cardiovascular parameters, including maximal heart rate (HRmax), resting heart rate (RHR), and heart rate reserve (HRR), is important for guiding training prescriptions in endurance athletes. Conventional age-based HRmax prediction formulas, particularly the widely used “220—age” equation, remain common despite substantial individual variation and documented underestimation in trained populations. Self-reported field data—defined as the highest heart rate recorded during maximal training or racing efforts—provide an ecologically valid alternative for examining HRmax in real-world settings. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted with 4,375 endurance athletes across multiple disciplines. Self-reported HRmax, RHR, weekly training load, and training history were collected via standardized web-based surveys administered globally from November 2022 to January 2023. Associations were evaluated using Pearson correlations, and the accuracy of age-based HRmax formulas was assessed via Bland–Altman analyses. Results: Age was strongly inversely correlated with HRmax ( r  = –0.60, p  < 0.001) and HRR ( r  = –0.66, p  < 0.001), but only weakly associated with RHR ( r  = 0.06, p  < 0.001). Age-based formulas underestimated self-reported HRmax by 5–6 bpm (mean bias = –5.8 bpm for Fox; –4.8 bpm for Tanaka), with wide limits of agreement (Tanaka: –18.5 to +9.1 bpm; Fox: –20.2 to +8.6 bpm), indicating substantial individual variability. RHR was moderately inversely correlated with weekly training hours ( r  = –0.23, p  < 0.001). No significant sex differences were observed. HRR exhibited high inter-individual variability. Conclusions: This exploratory analysis of self-reported field data demonstrates that age-based HRmax formulas show systematic underestimation and wide individual error in endurance athletes. These findings support the use of individualized, context-specific HRmax assessment, while highlighting the limitations of relying solely on age-based predictions.

• Augustsson, Sofia Ryman; Linner, Susanne; Solstad, Bård Erlend; Ausland, Ådne; Bjärsholm, Daniel & Ivarsson, Andreas [Show all 12 contributors for this article] (2026). Development of the FIDES Athlete Development Program ‘girls are not small boys’: a digital educational intervention. BMJ Open sport & exercise medicine. 12(1), p. 003163–003163. doi: 10.1136/bmjsem-2025-003163. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Objectives: To develop a sustainable and accessible educational programme on biopsychosocial female-specific topics, for young female athletes in organised sport, their parents and coaches for future testing and evaluation in a full-scale intervention study. Methods: A digital educational programme, along with its methodology, was developed in four steps: First, content validity of female-specific topics was identified through (a) literature reviews by an interdisciplinary research team and (b) an online survey of 1323 female athletes (aged 16–24 years) assessing perceived knowledge and knowledge needs regarding biopsychosocial topics. Second, film scripts based on identified topics were written, internally reviewed and evaluated by a pilot group of six 13–16-year-old female athletes. Third, online surveys assessing main and secondary outcomes were developed and tested in the pilot group. Finally, digital format and production were developed collaboratively with a film scholar and film technicians. Results: The intervention development yielded 12 videos of 5–7 min, featuring sports science researchers and female elite athletes sharing their perspectives on biopsychosocial topics specific to women. The protocol development produced a quasi-experimental, modified staircase cluster trial design, including bi-weekly assessment of main (ie, well-being and sporting experiences) and secondary outcomes (eg, perceived support) at baseline, pre-, post-intervention and post-post follow-up. Conclusion: This study outlines the development of a digital educational intervention for young female athletes, their parents and coaches, emphasising that interdisciplinary collaboration and user engagement are key to identifying intervention components and relevant outcomes.

• Radovan, Felicia; Solstad, Bård Erlend; Kjær, Jørgen; Melin, Anna; Ausland, Ådne & Bjärsholm, Daniel [Show all 11 contributors for this article] (2025). Female athletes' knowledge of biopsychosocial puberty-related topics in sports. What is missing? Frontiers in Sports and Active Living. 7. doi: 10.3389/fspor.2025.1596418. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Introduction: Puberty has been identified as one of the main contributing factors for girls dropping out of sports during adolescence. Knowledge and social support can, however, help athletes navigate the biopsychosocial (BPS) puberty-related changes associated with this period. Yet, research on female athletes' knowledge about BPS puberty-related topics is lacking. Therefore, this cross-sectional study aimed to examine female athletes' perceived knowledge and knowledge needs of BPS puberty-related topics during adolescence, explore interconnections across BPS domains, and investigate differences between athletes in team and individual sports.Method: A total of 1,323 Swedish and Norwegian female athletes (M age 18.7 ± 2.3 years, range 16–24) from ten sport disciplines [n = 657 (49.7%) team sport athletes; n = 656 (49.6%) individual sport athletes] completed an online survey in 2024 on perceived knowledge and knowledge needs regarding BPS puberty-related topics during adolescence.Results: Findings revealed low perceived knowledge and high knowledge needs among female athletes. A Mann–Whitney U test revealed higher perceived knowledge among team sport athletes regarding individual differences, social cohesion, social comparison, acceptance within the group, and recovery, compared to individual sport athletes. Additionally, team sport athletes reported higher knowledge needs regarding social comparisons, sports nutrition and recovery, while individual sport athletes reported higher knowledge needs regarding changes in sex hormones, individual differences, and changes in body composition. A network analysis identified clusters of biological, psychosocial, and behavioral topics in perceived knowledge and knowledge needs, indicating that knowledge is concentrated within domains.Discussion: The findings highlight gaps in knowledge among female athletes regarding BPS puberty-related topics across various sporting contexts. The results also underscore the urgent need for holistic and interdisciplinary educational programs addressing these knowledge gaps in the sporting context of female athletes.

• Laxdal, Aron Gauti; Torstveit, Monica Klungland; Augustsson, Sofia Ryman; Ausland, Ådne; Bjärsholm, Daniel & Kjær, Jørgen Bagger [Show all 11 contributors for this article] (2024). FIDES Athlete Development Programme: project background and study protocol of an embedded multiple case study. BMJ Open sport & exercise medicine. 10(1). doi: 10.1136/bmjsem-2024-001898. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Most sports science research revolves around male subjects. As a result, most of the knowledge and practices within sports are male-centric. Failing to take the biological, psychological and social (biopsychosocial) particularities of females into account is believed to hinder optimal sports participation, development and performance, with potential negative effects on the health and well-being of females. To close the knowledge gap and alleviate these issues, we aim to develop and evaluate a 12-video educational intervention that addresses female-specific subject matter: the FIDES Athlete Development Programme. The study is designed as an embedded multiple case study where at least 1320 Swedish female athletes aged 13–16 will participate, in addition to their parents and their coaches. The girls will be recruited through their sports clubs, with half being exposed to the FIDES Athlete Development Programme and the other half serving as control cases. The primary outcomes are well-being and sporting experience. To further increase our understanding of the intervention and its implications, interviews and focus group interviews with a reference group of girls and focus group interviews with a randomly selected subsample of coaches and parents will also be performed. The project is approved by the Swedish ethics committee (number: 2023-05264-01) and will be carried out in compliance with the Declaration of Helsinki. Results from the project will be published open access in peer-reviewed journals, at national and international conferences, in mass media, and a PhD thesis. The anonymised data will be made openly available in a data repository.

• Ausland, Ådne; Sandberg, Edvard Liljedahl; Jortveit, Jarle & Seiler, Stephen (2022). Heart rhythm assessment in elite endurance athletes: A better method? Frontiers in Sports and Active Living. 4. doi: 10.3389/fspor.2022.937525. Full text in Research Archive

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• Radovan, Felicia; Solstad, Bård Erlend; Kjær, Jørgen; Melin, Anna; Ausland, Ådne & Bjærsholm, Daniel [Show all 11 contributors for this article] (2025). Female athletes' knowledge of biopsychosocial puberty-related topics in sports during adolescence: What is missing? Full text in Research Archive
• Ausland, Ådne (2025). Development of the FIDES Coach Education Program. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  My PhD research project is pioneering a new era in sport science by focusing on enhancing female athletes’ potential across participation, development, and performance. The core of this work is the development, optimization, and rigorous evaluation of a sustainable, evidence-based education program for coaches. Driven by the goal of expanding opportunities for girls and women to thrive, reach their full potential, and maintain lifelong participation, our program adopts a holistic biopsychosocial approach. This framework intentionally places the female athlete at the centre, integrating biological, psychological, and social factors to equip coaches with the essential tools they need to excel.

• Ausland, Ådne (2025). Støtte, tillit og tilpasning: Trenerens rolle i kvinnelig idrettsutvikling. Full text in Research Archive
• Ausland, Ådne; Laxdal, Aron Gauti; Ivarsson, Andreas; Torstveit, Monica Klungland; Solstad, Bård Erlend & Melin, Anne [Show all 11 contributors for this article] (2025). Coaching Female Athletes: Where Do Coaches Turn for Knowledge? Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  As awareness of female athletes' unique challenges grows, understanding how coaches engage with learning opportunities to support them is important. This study explores how coaches prefer to learn, and through which formats they acquire knowledge of coaching female athletes. A web-based survey of 779 coaches (306 females, mean age = 44, SD = 11.5) in Norway and Sweden. Data were analysed using Decision Tree Analyses in SPSS. Findings indicate a strong preference for mixed learning methods (69.3%), particularly among female coaches (75.2%). Digital learning was preferred by 61.6%, with individual sport coaches showing the highest preference (87.5%). Education preferences varied; males (21.4%) and less experienced coaches (24.9%) favoured passive methods, while younger (14.9%) and female coaches (11.8%) leaned towards active (13.1%) or mixed (73.8%). Digital learning was dominant among individual sport coaches (87.5%), whereas mixed approaches were more common in team sports (76.8%). Regarding educators, most coaches (85.2%) preferred a mix of sport scientists and practitioners, though female coaches in team sports favoured practitioners (36.8%) over sport scientists (30.8%). Sources of knowledge specific to coaching female athletes were primarily based on experience, with 86.1% relying on personal or peer experience. Notably, 9.8% of coaches reported no use of knowledge sources related to female athletes. Our study highlights the need for flexible, multimodal coach education that integrates scientific and practical knowledge while considering differences in experience, sport, and learning preferences. Expanding access to structured learning, including digital resources, can help bridge the knowledge gap and enhance coaching practices for female athletes.

• Ausland, Ådne; Kjær, Jørgen B; Ivarsson, Andreas; Torstveit, Monica Klungland; Solstad, Bård Erlend & Melin, Anna [Show all 11 contributors for this article] (2025). Off the Beaten Track: How Coaches and Athletes Navigate Female-Specific Topics. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Introduction Communication between coaches and female athletes is essential when addressing six key topics: puberty, menstruation, injuries, body composition, coach-athlete relationships, and within-group communication. However, some coaches may experience challenges in communicating these topics due to limited knowledge or confidence. Effective communication on these issues can strengthen coach-athlete relationships, foster trust, and contribute to athlete well-being. This study examines (1) how female athletes and coaches perceive the importance of feeling safe communicating on these topics, (2) how coaches evaluate their own comfort and ability to address these topics, and (3) how coaches perceive their athletes’ comfort in communicating personal thoughts. Methods Two digital surveys were conducted: one with 779 coaches of female athletes (306 female coaches, mean age = 44 years, SD = 11.5 years) and one with 1,323 female athletes aged 16 to 24 years (mean age = 19 years, SD = 2 years) in Norway and Sweden. Coaches rated the importance of feeling safe communicating about these six topics (rated from 1 = unimportant to 7 = very important). Athletes answered three questions: (1) how important they think these conversations are, (2) how comfortable they feel engaging in the conversations, and (3) how comfortable they believe their athletes feel when communicating with them on the six topics. Latent profile analyses were conducted using Mplus. Results Athletes rated communication on all six topics as highly important (M = 5.87-6.27, SD = .82-1.23). Coaches recognized this (M = 5.86-6.21, SD = 0.86-1.13) but reported lower comfort levels in communicating these topics (M = 4.76-5.96, SD = 1.10-1.75). Individual sport coaches felt generally more comfortable than team sport coaches. The largest gaps were found in menstruation and body composition, where coaches felt significantly less comfortable. Coaches also rated their athletes’ comfort in sharing as lower than their own, with female coaches perceiving their athletes as less comfortable than male coaches. Discussion Findings reveal a gap between the perceived importance of communication and coaches’ comfort in addressing these topics. While athletes highly value these conversations, coaches—especially in team sports—often feel unprepared. Coaches also perceive their athletes as less comfortable sharing than they are in engaging, suggesting a misalignment in communication expectations. This highlights the need for fostering environments where athletes feel safer expressing personal concerns and where coaches are better prepared to respond effectively.

• Linner, Susanne; Augustsson, Sofia; Radovan, Felicia; Ausland, Ådne; Bjærsholm, Daniel & Kjær, Jørgen B [Show all 10 contributors for this article] (2025). Development of the FIDES ADP "Girls are Not Small Boys" digital educational intervention. Full text in Research Archive
• Torstveit, Monica Klungland; Solstad, Bård Erlend & Ausland, Ådne (2025). Må være greit å snakke om syklus. [Journal]. Fædrelandsvennen. doi: https:/www.fvn.no/sport/i/4B67kR/maa-vaere-greit-aa-snakke-om-syklus. Full text in Research Archive
• Solstad, Bård Erlend; Ausland, Ådne; Knight, Camilla J.; Ivarsson, Andreas & Torstveit, Monica Klungland (2024). A comparative qualitative study of the distinctive needs of coaches who are coaching female athletes. Full text in Research Archive
• Ausland, Ådne; Torstveit, Monica Klungland; Ivarsson, Andreas; Knight, Camilla J. & Solstad, Bård Erlend (2024). A qualitative study of retired female athletes' lived experiences pertaining to coaching practices and their recommendations for female-specific coach education programs. Full text in Research Archive
• Torstveit, Monica Klungland; Ausland, Ådne; Augustsson, Sofia Ryman; Ivarsson, Andreas; Kjær, Jørgen & Laxdal, Aron Gauti [Show all 10 contributors for this article] (2024). Perceived Importance and Self-Evaluations of Female-Specific Knowledge: Current Insights into Coaching of Female Athletes. Full text in Research Archive
• Solstad, Bård Erlend; Ausland, Ådne; Knight, Camilla J.; Ivarsson, Andreas & Torstveit, Monica Klungland (2024). A comparative qualitative study of the distinctive needs of coaches who are coaching female athletes. Full text in Research Archive
• Torstveit, Monica Klungland; Ausland, Ådne; Augustsson, Sofia Ryman; Ivarsson, Andreas; Kjær, Ingirid Geirsdatter Heald & Laxdal, Aron Gauti [Show all 10 contributors for this article] (2024). Perceived Importance and Self-Evaluations of Female-Specific Knowledge: Current Insights into Coaching of Female Athletes. Full text in Research Archive
• Solstad, Bård Erlend; Ausland, Ådne & Torstveit, Monica Klungland (2024). Female Inclusion & DEvelopment in Sport (FIDES): Et steg mot bedre idrettslig deltakelse, utvikling og prestasjon? Full text in Research Archive
• Ausland, Ådne; Torstveit, Monica Klungland; Ivarsson, Andreas; Knight, Camilla J. & Solstad, Bård Erlend (2024). A qualitative study of retired female athletes' lived experiences pertaining to coaching practices and their recommendations for female-specific coach education programs. Full text in Research Archive
• Ausland, Ådne; Torstveit, Monica Klungland; Augustsson, Sofia Ryman; Ivarsson, Andreas; Kjær, Jørgen & Laxdal, Aron Gauti [Show all 10 contributors for this article] (2024). Perceived Importance and Self-Evaluations of Female-Specific Knowledge: Current Insights into Coaching of Female Athletes. Full text in Research Archive

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